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REET L1+L2 · Child Development & Pedagogy

Theories of Intelligence: From Spearman to Gardner

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This page covers the leading definitions of intelligence and every theory from single-factor to multiple intelligences and the PASS model — theorist, key components, and the exact words REET tests. REET 2024 carried 4 questions on this topic, two of them on Guilford's model alone.

  • 4 questions in REET 2024
  • Teacher-training level
  • 7 min read
Verified 17 September 2026 · Source: NCERT Psychology Class 12, Chapter 1: Variations in Psychological Attributes

How REET asks this topic

Two of REET 2024's 4 questions were on Guilford's Structure of Intellect model — which of the three dimensions is NOT part of it ('specific factor' belongs to Spearman), and the correct order of the dimensions (Operations → Contents → Products). One question was on Cattell's fluid intelligence (solving a new problem without relying on prior knowledge), and one asked you to recognise Wechsler's definition ('an aggregate or global capacity... purposeful action, rational thinking, effective adjustment'). In short, expect precise theorist–theory–component pairing and the exact words of a definition.

The meaning of intelligence and key definitions

Intelligence is a person's mental ability to learn, reason, solve problems, and adjust to new situations. Both heredity and environment shape intelligence, and it varies in amount and kind from person to person — which is precisely the basis of individual differences.

Key definitions: (1) Alfred Binet — intelligence is the ability 'to judge well, to understand well, and to reason well.' (2) David Wechsler — intelligence is a person's aggregate or global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment. In REET, this definition is recognised by the words 'aggregate or global capacity'. (3) William Stern — intelligence is the general ability to adjust to new situations and problems; Stern also gave us the concept of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ).

Major theories of intelligence at a glance

TheoryTheoristCore idea
Unifactor theoryAssociated with Binet, Terman, SternIntelligence is a single, indivisible general ability that operates in every task
Two-factor theoryCharles SpearmanA general factor 'g' (in every task) plus a specific factor 's' (different for different tasks)
Multifactor theoryE. L. ThorndikeIntelligence is the sum of many independent elements; three types — abstract, social, and concrete/mechanical intelligence
Group-factor / Primary Mental AbilitiesL. L. Thurstone7 primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension, numerical ability, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, memory, inductive reasoning
Structure of IntellectJ. P. GuilfordA three-dimensional model: Operations × Contents × Products (details below)
Fluid and Crystallized intelligenceRaymond CattellFluid (Gf) — solving new problems and reasoning without relying on prior knowledge; Crystallized (Gc) — using knowledge accumulated through experience and education
Level I and Level II abilitiesArthur JensenLevel I — associative learning (rote, output mirrors input); Level II — cognitive competence, higher-order thinking
Theory of Multiple IntelligencesHoward Gardner (1983, Frames of Mind)8 independent intelligences (7 in 1983; naturalistic intelligence was added in the 1990s): linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic
Triarchic theoryRobert SternbergComponential (analytical), experiential (creative), and contextual (practical) intelligence
PASS modelJ. P. Das, Jack Naglieri, KirbyPlanning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous and Successive processing

[Source 1]

Guilford's Structure of Intellect model — in detail

J. P. Guilford presented intelligence as a three-dimensional cube. Every mental ability answers three questions — what the mind processes (Operations), what kind of material it processes (Contents), and what the result is (Products). REET treats this exact order — Operations → Contents → Products — as correct.

Operations (originally 5): Cognition, Memory, Divergent production, Convergent production, Evaluation. Contents (originally 4): Figural, Symbolic, Semantic, Behavioural. Products (6): Units, Classes, Relations, Systems, Transformations, Implications. The original model gave 5 × 4 × 6 = 120 abilities; later, splitting figural content into visual and auditory raised the count to 150 (5 × 5 × 6), and splitting memory into memory-recording and memory-retention raised it further to 180 (6 × 5 × 6). NCERT also refers to 180 cells.

Note: 'specific factor (s)' and 'general factor (g)' are Spearman's terms, not Guilford's. Guilford's 'divergent production' is linked to creativity — thinking up many original answers to a single question — while convergent production means arriving at the one correct answer.

Emotional Intelligence

Traditional theories focused mainly on cognitive abilities. Peter Salovey and John Mayer described emotional intelligence as the ability to recognise and distinguish between one's own and others' emotions, and to use that information to guide one's thinking and behaviour. Daniel Goleman's book 'Emotional Intelligence' (1995) popularised the concept. Emotional intelligence is measured as 'Emotional Quotient' (EQ).

For the classroom, this means marks or IQ alone aren't the whole basis for success — skills like self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy and cooperation can also be taught. Keep the distinction from Cattell's fluid intelligence in mind — fluid intelligence is about reasoning through new problems, not regulating emotions.

It helps to see how these theories build on each other historically. Spearman's two-factor theory (1904) was the earliest attempt to put a number on 'general ability', and Thorndike, Thurstone and Guilford each pushed back against the idea of a single 'g' by breaking intelligence into more and more separate abilities. Cattell, Gardner, Sternberg and the PASS model then moved the conversation further still — away from 'how much intelligence does a person have' and toward 'what different kinds of intelligence does a person have, and in what combination'. For REET, this trajectory matters less than the exact theorist-theory pairing, but understanding it makes the pairings far easier to recall under exam pressure, since you can reason out roughly where in this timeline a name belongs instead of memorising a bare list.

Using this in the classroom

TheoryCue for the teacherClassroom example
Gardner — Multiple IntelligencesTeach the same concept through several channels; identify each child's strongest intelligence'The water cycle' — a story (linguistic), a diagram (spatial), a song (musical), acting it out (bodily), a group discussion (interpersonal)
Guilford — Divergent thinkingAsk open-ended questions, not just ones with a single right answer'How many different uses can you think of for a brick?'
Cattell — Fluid intelligencePuzzles, pattern recognition, questions with unfamiliar situationsCompleting a number sequence or a shape pattern
Cattell — Crystallized intelligenceReading habits, vocabulary, connecting prior knowledgeLinking last year's learning to a new lesson
Sternberg — Practical intelligenceConnect lessons to real-life problemsShop accounts, planning a class budget
Jensen — Level IIGo beyond rote (Level I) with 'why' and 'how' questionsDiscussing 'why does this rule work?'

Memory trick / exam tip

Remember Guilford's order as 'O-C-P' — Operation, Content, Product. For Cattell: 'Fluid = fresh water, flows anywhere (a new problem); Crystallized = frozen solid (accumulated knowledge).'

Questions asked in REET 2024 (solved)

Question 6

Which of the following is not included in the Guilford’s three basic parameters of the structure of human intelligence ?

  1. Aविशेष घटक
  2. Bविषय वस्तु
  3. Cउत्पाद
  4. Dसंचालन

Explanation

गिलफोर्ड (J.P. Guilford) के बुद्धि संरचना मॉडल (Structure of Intellect) में बुद्धि के तीन आयाम हैं — संक्रिया/संचालन (Operations), विषय वस्तु (Contents) और उत्पाद (Products)। 'विशेष घटक' (Specific factor, s) स्पीयरमैन के द्वि-कारक सिद्धान्त से संबंधित है, गिलफोर्ड के मॉडल से नहीं।

Question 16

“Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.” This statement according to

  1. Aस्टर्न
  2. Bजीन पियाजे
  3. Cडेविड वेशलर
  4. Dवुडवर्थ और मार्क्विस

Explanation

यह प्रसिद्ध परिभाषा डेविड वेशलर (David Wechsler) की है – 'बुद्धि व्यक्ति की वह समुच्चय या सार्वभौमिक क्षमता है जिससे वह उद्देश्यपूर्ण कार्य करता है, विवेकपूर्ण चिंतन करता है और वातावरण के साथ प्रभावी ढंग से व्यवहार करता है।' स्टर्न ने बुद्धि-लब्धि (IQ) की अवधारणा दी तथा बुद्धि को नई परिस्थितियों में समायोजन की क्षमता बताया।

Question 30

Which of the following correct structural sequence of Gillford’s model of human intelligence ?

  1. Aसंक्रिया → उत्पाद → विषयवस्तु
  2. Bउत्पाद → संक्रिया → विषयवस्तु
  3. Cसंक्रिया → विषयवस्तु → उत्पाद
  4. Dविषयवस्तु → उत्पाद → संक्रिया

Explanation

गिलफोर्ड (Guilford) के बुद्धि संरचना मॉडल (Structure of Intellect) के तीन आयाम हैं – संक्रिया (Operations), विषयवस्तु (Contents) और उत्पाद (Products)। व्यक्ति किसी विषयवस्तु पर मानसिक संक्रिया करता है जिससे उत्पाद प्राप्त होता है; इसलिए सही क्रम संक्रिया → विषयवस्तु → उत्पाद है (मूल मॉडल में 5 × 5 × 6 = 150 कारक; बाद में संशोधित रूप में 180)।

Question 3

What does fluid intelligence refer to in Cattell’s theory ?

  1. Aपिछले अनुभवों से ज्ञान का उपयोग करने की क्षमता
  2. Bभावनात्मक विनियमन और सामाजिक कौशल
  3. Cमौखिक कार्यों का विश्लेषण करने की क्षमता
  4. Dबिना पूर्व ज्ञान पर निर्भरता के नई समस्याओं को हल करने की क्षमता

Explanation

रेमंड कैटल ने बुद्धि को दो भागों में बाँटा — फ्लूइड (तरल) बुद्धि और क्रिस्टलाइज्ड (ठोस) बुद्धि। फ्लूइड बुद्धि पूर्व ज्ञान पर निर्भर हुए बिना नई समस्याओं को तर्क द्वारा हल करने की क्षमता है। विकल्प (A) पिछले अनुभवों से अर्जित ज्ञान का उपयोग क्रिस्टलाइज्ड बुद्धि का लक्षण है।

Practice questions

Question 1

The 'g' factor and 's' factor are related to which theory?

  1. Aथॉर्नडाइक का बहु-कारक सिद्धांत
  2. Bस्पीयरमैन का द्वि-कारक सिद्धांत
  3. Cथर्स्टन का समूह-कारक सिद्धांत
  4. Dगार्डनर का बहुबुद्धि सिद्धांत

Explanation

According to Spearman, intelligence consists of a general factor (g) and specific factors (s). Thorndike proposed many independent elements, Thurstone the primary mental abilities, and Gardner independent intelligences.

Question 2

Which of the following is NOT among Thurstone's primary mental abilities?

  1. Aशब्द प्रवाह
  2. Bआगमनात्मक तर्क
  3. Cसंगीतात्मक योग्यता
  4. Dप्रत्यक्षण गति

Explanation

Thurstone's 7 abilities are verbal comprehension, numerical ability, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, memory and inductive reasoning. Musical intelligence belongs to Gardner's theory.

Question 3

In Sternberg's triarchic theory, 'contextual intelligence' relates to—

  1. Aसूचना का विश्लेषण
  2. Bनई परिस्थितियों में सृजनात्मक समाधान
  3. Cदैनिक जीवन के वातावरण के साथ व्यावहारिक समायोजन
  4. Dसंगीत की समझ

Explanation

Contextual (practical) intelligence is about adapting to, shaping, or selecting one's everyday environment. Analysis belongs to componential intelligence, and creative problem-solving to experiential intelligence.

Question 4

In Guilford's model, 'divergent production' is part of which dimension?

  1. Aविषयवस्तु
  2. Bउत्पाद
  3. Cसंक्रिया
  4. Dसामान्य कारक

Explanation

Divergent production, convergent production, cognition, memory and evaluation are all Operations. 'General factor' is Spearman's term.

Question 5

Who developed the PASS model?

  1. Aजे. पी. दास, नागलिएरी और किर्बी
  2. Bहावर्ड गार्डनर
  3. Cआर्थर जेन्सेन
  4. Dरेमंड कैटल

Explanation

According to NCERT, the PASS model (Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous and Successive processing) was developed by J. P. Das, Jack Naglieri and Kirby.

Question 6

According to Gardner, the ability to understand one's own feelings, strengths and limitations is called—

  1. Aअंतर्वैयक्तिक बुद्धि
  2. Bअंतःवैयक्तिक बुद्धि
  3. Cप्रकृतिवादी बुद्धि
  4. Dभाषाई बुद्धि

Explanation

Intrapersonal intelligence is understanding oneself, while interpersonal intelligence is understanding others' feelings and motives.

Question 7

A Class 5 child solves a never-seen-before figure puzzle by reasoning without prior practice. According to Cattell, this shows which intelligence?

  1. Aक्रिस्टलीकृत बुद्धि
  2. Bतरल बुद्धि
  3. Cसामाजिक बुद्धि
  4. Dसंवेगात्मक बुद्धि

Explanation

Solving a new problem through reasoning, without relying on prior knowledge or experience, is fluid intelligence. Crystallized intelligence is about using accumulated knowledge and experience.

Question 8

According to Jensen, an example of 'Level I' ability is—

  1. Aकिसी नियम का कारण खोजना
  2. Bअंकों की श्रृंखला को सुनकर ज्यों-का-त्यों दोहराना
  3. Cनई समस्या के लिए योजना बनाना
  4. Dदो अवधारणाओं की तुलना कर निष्कर्ष निकालना

Explanation

Level I is associative learning, where the output closely mirrors the input, such as repeating a string of numbers. Finding the reason for a rule, planning, and comparing concepts are higher, Level II cognitive abilities.

Question 9

While teaching 'parts of a plant', a teacher has some children draw, some write a poem, some classify leaves in the garden and some discuss in groups. This applies which theory?

  1. Aस्पीयरमैन का द्वि-कारक सिद्धांत
  2. Bगार्डनर का बहुबुद्धि सिद्धांत
  3. Cजेन्सेन का स्तर सिद्धांत
  4. Dएक-कारक सिद्धांत

Explanation

Teaching the same concept through spatial (drawing), linguistic (poem), naturalistic (classifying leaves) and interpersonal (group discussion) channels is an application of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.

Question 10

How many mental abilities were there in Guilford's original Structure of Intellect model (5 operations × 4 contents × 6 products)?

  1. A120
  2. B150
  3. C180
  4. D7

Explanation

5 × 4 × 6 = 120. Later revisions raised this to 150 (after splitting the content dimension) and then to 180 (6 × 5 × 6) after splitting the operations further. 7 is the number of Thurstone's primary mental abilities.

Frequently asked questions

Who proposed the two-factor theory of intelligence?+

Charles Spearman. According to it, intelligence has a general factor (g) that operates in every mental task, plus many specific factors (s) tied to individual tasks.

What are the three dimensions of Guilford's Structure of Intellect model?+

Operations, Contents and Products. The original model proposed 120 mental abilities, and the revised model proposed 180.

What's the difference between fluid and crystallized intelligence?+

This classification is Raymond Cattell's. Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve new problems through reasoning without relying on prior knowledge; crystallized intelligence is the ability to use knowledge accumulated through experience and education.

How many of Thurstone's primary mental abilities are there?+

Seven — verbal comprehension, numerical ability, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, memory and inductive reasoning.

How many questions come from theories of intelligence in REET?+

The number isn't fixed, but combining Level 1 and Level 2 shifts, REET 2024 carried 4 questions from this topic. Together with the next topic, 'Intelligence Tests and IQ', it's a regular part of CDP.

Read next

Individual Differences

Previous topic: types of individual differences, their causes, and classroom solutions

Intelligence Tests and the Intelligence Quotient

Next topic: the IQ formula, and tests from Binet to Wechsler

REET Syllabus

The complete official syllabus for every subject

REET 2024 Solved Paper

Questions, official answers and explanations from every shift

Official Sources

  1. NCERT Psychology Class 12, Chapter 1: Variations in Psychological Attributes
  2. Structure of Intellect (J.P. Guilford) — InstructionalDesign.org

Change Log

  • 17 September 2026 — English pilot page published — mirrors the fact-checked Hindi page, independently bilingual-accuracy checked