Methods of Teaching Science: Originators, Teaching Maxims and Aids — REET Notes
This page lays out every major method of teaching science along with its originator, its stages, its teaching maxims, and classroom examples. REET 2024 carried 4 questions on originators, maxims and teaching aids from this exact area, making it the highest-scoring part of science pedagogy.
- 4 questions in REET 2024
- Teacher-training level
- 9 min read
How REET asks this topic
REET 2024 carried 4 questions on methods of teaching science, and the pattern is clear: 'method → originator' (the heuristic/discovery method — H. E. Armstrong; the definition of a project — Kilpatrick), 'method → teaching maxim' (the inductive method — from the known to the unknown) and 'classifying teaching aids' (a film is an audio-visual aid). In other words, the questions are theoretical and factual, but the options are deliberately close to one another (Dewey versus Kilpatrick), so you need the originator, the stages and the maxim of each method pinned down precisely.
What decides which method to choose
Science is not just a collection of facts — it is a process of asking questions, observing, experimenting and drawing conclusions. This is why NCF 2005 emphasises teaching science through learning by doing, discovery and activity. No single method is best for every lesson; a teacher chooses a method based on the nature of the lesson, the class level, the equipment available, the time, and the number of children.
One useful distinction: teacher-centred methods (lecture, demonstration) cover more content in less time but leave the child passive; child-centred methods (laboratory, heuristic, project, problem-solving) take more time, but they build scientific temperament and skills. In REET questions asking for the 'most suitable method', the child-centred option is usually correct.
Major methods — originator, core idea, limitation
| Method | Originator / association | Core idea | Main limitation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lecture | Traditional | The teacher speaks, students listen | Students remain passive; no practical skill is built |
| Demonstration | — | The teacher performs the experiment while students observe; suitable when equipment is expensive or dangerous | Students don't get hands-on practice |
| Laboratory | — | Students perform the experiment themselves and draw conclusions | Demands equipment, time and space |
| Heuristic (discovery) | H. E. Armstrong | Puts the student in the position of a 'discoverer'; the word comes from the Greek heurisko, meaning 'I discover' | Takes more time; difficult in large classes |
| Project | William Heard Kilpatrick (1918); based on John Dewey's philosophy of pragmatism | A real-life, purposeful activity carried out in a social environment | Hard to fit the entire syllabus into projects |
| Problem-solving | Linked to John Dewey's reflective thinking | Problem → hypothesis → experiment/investigation → conclusion | Not every topic lends itself to being framed as a problem |
| Dalton Plan | Helen Parkhurst | Students complete monthly 'assignments' at their own pace in a laboratory-classroom | Needs more resources and self-discipline |
| Programmed instruction | B. F. Skinner (linear programming) | Small steps, immediate feedback, self-paced | Limits creativity and discussion |
| Inductive | — | Example → rule; specific → general; known → unknown | Slower; not complete on its own |
| Deductive | — | Rule → example; general → specific | Encourages rote learning; understanding is shallower |
Questions on 'the originator' most often mix up John Dewey and Kilpatrick among the options.[Source 1]
The project and heuristic methods, in more depth
Kilpatrick's definition (asked in REET 2024): 'A project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment.' Stevenson defined a project as 'a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting.' The usual stages of the project method are: providing a situation → selecting the project (deciding the purpose) → planning → execution → evaluation → recording. Example: Class 7 students could take up a project on 'the purity of water sources near the school' — collecting samples, testing them with pH paper, and preparing a report.
In Armstrong's heuristic method, the teacher does not supply the answer; instead, they hand the student a worksheet or a problem, and the student finds the answer through their own experiments and observation. This builds self-reliance, observational skill and scientific temperament. Modern inquiry-based learning is an extension of exactly this idea; its popular framework is the 5E model — Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate and Evaluate.
Teaching maxims — and which method each relates to
| Teaching maxim | Example in a science class | Related method |
|---|---|---|
| Known to unknown | Milk curdling into curd at home → fermentation by micro-organisms | Inductive, synthesis |
| Example to rule | Observing several metals expand on heating → 'solids expand on heating' | Inductive |
| Rule to example | Teaching Ohm's law first, then solving problems with it | Deductive |
| Concrete to abstract | Playing with a magnet → the concept of a magnetic field | Demonstration, laboratory |
| Simple to complex | A single cell → tissue → organ system | All methods |
| Specific to general | The life cycle of a frog → the general concept of 'metamorphosis' | Inductive |
| Analysis to synthesis | Separating the parts of a flower → understanding the structure of the whole flower | Analysis-synthesis |
The analytic method moves from the unknown (the conclusion) toward the known, while the synthetic method moves from the known toward the unknown.
Classification of teaching aids
| Type | Sense involved | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Audio | Ear only | Radio, gramophone, tape recorder, audio podcasts |
| Visual | Eye only | Charts, models, maps, blackboard, flash cards, slides |
| Audio-visual | Both eye and ear | Films (with sound), television, video |
In Edgar Dale's Cone of Experience (1946), direct, purposeful experience sits at the base and verbal symbols sit at the top — the more direct the experience, the more lasting the learning.
Applying this in the classroom
| Lesson (Class 6-8) | Suitable method | Why |
|---|---|---|
| Identifying acids and bases (turmeric, litmus) | Laboratory / heuristic | Cheap indicators; children build the rule themselves by watching the colour change |
| Sodium reacting with water, electroplating | Demonstration | The chemicals are hazardous or equipment is limited; the teacher performs it safely |
| The crops and soil of one's own village | Project | Real life, group work, survey and report |
| Why do plants need sunlight? | Problem-solving | Forming a hypothesis with a controlled experiment on two pots |
| The law of expansion by heat | Inductive, then deductive | First build the rule from several examples, then use the rule to explain new examples |
| The solar system, volcanoes | Audio-visual aids (video, model) | Direct experience isn't possible, so the next level of Dale's Cone is used |
Even a large class with limited resources can use child-centred methods through 'cheap-material experiments' (bottles, balloons, turmeric).
Memory trick / exam tip
A formula for remembering originators: 'Arm(strong) for heuristic, Kil(patrick) for project, Park(hurst) for Dalton, Skin(ner) for programming'. And think of 'inductive' as building 'in' toward a rule from examples — from known to unknown, specific to general. Deductive is exactly the reverse.
REET 2024 questions (solved)
Question 135
Founder of the heuristic method of biology teaching
- Aएच. ई. आर्मस्ट्राँग
- Bजॉन डीवी
- Cविलियम किलपैट्रिक
- Dसी. वी. गुड
Explanation
अन्वेषण या ह्यूरिस्टिक विधि (heuristic method) के प्रवर्तक प्रो. एच. ई. आर्मस्ट्राँग (H. E. Armstrong) माने जाते हैं। इसमें छात्र स्वयं खोजकर्ता की तरह प्रयोग व निरीक्षण द्वारा ज्ञान प्राप्त करता है। विलियम किलपैट्रिक प्रोजेक्ट (योजना) विधि से और जॉन डीवी प्रयोजनवाद/करके सीखने से जुड़े हैं।
Question 143
Inductive method is based on the following teaching maxims
- Aनियम से उदाहरण की ओर
- Bज्ञात से अज्ञात की ओर
- Cसामान्य से विशिष्ट की ओर
- Dप्रमाण से प्रत्यक्ष की ओर
Explanation
आगमन विधि (inductive method) में छात्र परिचित उदाहरणों और अनुभवों से शुरू करके सामान्य नियम तक पहुँचते हैं, अतः यह 'ज्ञात से अज्ञात की ओर', 'उदाहरण से नियम की ओर' और 'विशिष्ट से सामान्य की ओर' जैसे शिक्षण सूत्रों पर आधारित है। 'नियम से उदाहरण की ओर' और 'सामान्य से विशिष्ट की ओर' निगमन (deductive) विधि के सूत्र हैं। इसलिए (B) सही है।
Question 136
Which teaching-aids are included in the audio-visual aids ?
- Aचलचित्र
- Bरेडियो
- Cमॉडल
- Dग्रामोफोन
Explanation
दृश्य-श्रव्य (audio-visual) सामग्री वह है जिसमें देखने और सुनने दोनों इन्द्रियों का प्रयोग होता है; चलचित्र (movie) में चित्र और ध्वनि दोनों होते हैं। रेडियो और ग्रामोफोन केवल श्रव्य सामग्री हैं, जबकि मॉडल केवल दृश्य सामग्री है।
Question 146
“ Project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment.” Which pedagogue gave this statement ?
- Aजॉन डेवी
- Bसिगमंड फ्रूयड
- Cजीन पियाजे
- Dविलियम हर्ड किलपैट्रिक
Explanation
“Project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment” — परियोजना की यह प्रसिद्ध परिभाषा विलियम हर्ड किलपैट्रिक ने दी है, जिन्हें परियोजना विधि का प्रवर्तक माना जाता है। वे जॉन डेवी के शिष्य थे और यह विधि डेवी के 'करके सीखना' विचार पर आधारित है, पर परिभाषा किलपैट्रिक की है।
Practice questions
Question 1
The Dalton Plan was propounded by —
- Aमारिया मॉन्टेसरी
- Bहेलन पार्कहर्स्ट
- Cहेलन केलर
- Dफ्रोबेल
Explanation
The Dalton Plan was developed by Helen Parkhurst, in which students complete assignments at their own pace. Montessori and Froebel are associated with pre-primary education methods instead.
Question 2
The deductive method is based on which maxim of teaching?
- Aउदाहरण से नियम की ओर
- Bविशिष्ट से सामान्य की ओर
- Cसामान्य से विशिष्ट की ओर
- Dमूर्त से अमूर्त की ओर
Explanation
In the deductive method, a general rule is given first and then applied to specific examples. 'Example to rule' and 'specific to general' are maxims of the inductive method.
Question 3
When an experiment is hazardous or apparatus is costly and scarce, the most suitable method of science teaching is —
- Aप्रयोगशाला विधि
- Bप्रदर्शन विधि
- Cप्रोजेक्ट विधि
- Dडाल्टन योजना
Explanation
In the demonstration method, the teacher performs the experiment safely while the whole class observes, so it suits experiments that are risky or that need equipment which is expensive or limited in supply.
Question 4
'A project is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting.' Whose definition is this?
- Aकिलपैट्रिक
- Bस्टीवेंसन
- Cआर्मस्ट्राँग
- Dस्किनर
Explanation
This definition belongs to Stevenson. Kilpatrick's definition instead emphasises 'a whole-hearted purposeful activity, carried on in a social environment'.
Question 5
What lies at the base of Edgar Dale's Cone of Experience?
- Aशाब्दिक प्रतीक
- Bचलचित्र
- Cप्रत्यक्ष, उद्देश्यपूर्ण अनुभव
- Dरेडियो व रिकॉर्डिंग
Explanation
At the base of Dale's Cone sits direct, purposeful experience, and verbal symbols sit at the most abstract, topmost level. Moving down the cone, experience becomes more concrete and learning becomes more lasting.
Question 6
Programmed instruction (linear programming) is associated with —
- Aबी. एफ. स्किनर
- Bजॉन डीवी
- Cएच. ई. आर्मस्ट्राँग
- Dजीन पियाजे
Explanation
Linear programmed instruction is based on B. F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning — small steps, active response and immediate reinforcement.
Question 7
Which of the following teaching aids is only audio?
- Aटेलीविज़न
- Bमॉडल
- Cरेडियो
- Dवीडियो
Explanation
Radio is heard only. Television and video are audio-visual, while a model is a visual aid.
Question 8
In Class 7, the teacher asks, 'Do plants need sunlight to make food?' and students form a hypothesis and experiment with two pots. Which method is this?
- Aव्याख्यान विधि
- Bसमस्या-समाधान विधि
- Cनिगमन विधि
- Dप्रदर्शन विधि
Explanation
Presenting a problem, forming a hypothesis, testing it with a controlled experiment, and drawing a conclusion — these are the stages of the problem-solving method.
Question 9
The correct sequence of steps in the project method is —
- Aयोजना → परिस्थिति → चुनाव → क्रियान्वयन → मूल्यांकन → अभिलेखन
- Bपरिस्थिति → चुनाव → योजना → क्रियान्वयन → मूल्यांकन → अभिलेखन
- Cचुनाव → क्रियान्वयन → योजना → परिस्थिति → अभिलेखन → मूल्यांकन
- Dपरिस्थिति → योजना → मूल्यांकन → चुनाव → क्रियान्वयन → अभिलेखन
Explanation
The teacher first presents a problem situation, students choose a project, plan it, carry it out, then the work is evaluated, and finally it is recorded.
Question 10
In the 5E model, what does the first phase 'Engage' mainly do?
- Aअंतिम परीक्षा लेना
- Bबच्चों की जिज्ञासा जगाकर पूर्वज्ञान को नए विषय से जोड़ना
- Cनियम की परिभाषा लिखवाना
- Dगृहकार्य देना
Explanation
The Engage stage sparks curiosity through an interesting question, event or short activity, and surfaces children's prior ideas about the new topic. Assessment belongs to the final 'Evaluate' stage instead.
Frequently asked questions
Who originated the heuristic method of teaching science?+
Prof. H. E. Armstrong. In this method, the student acts as a discoverer, arriving at knowledge through their own experiments and observation.
Who originated the project method?+
William Heard Kilpatrick (1918); it is based on John Dewey's philosophy of pragmatism.
What is the difference between the inductive and deductive methods?+
The inductive method moves from example to rule, specific to general, and known to unknown; the deductive method moves from rule to example and general to specific.
What kind of teaching aid is a film?+
A film with sound is an audio-visual aid; radio and the gramophone are audio aids, and models and charts are visual aids.
How many questions come from methods of teaching science in REET?+
REET 2024 (Level 2 Science) carried 4 questions from this topic — on originators, teaching maxims and teaching aids.
Read next
The Nature of Science
Previous topic: what science is, the scientific method and temperament
Science Lab and Activities
Next topic: laboratory organisation, safety and classroom activities
REET Syllabus
The complete official syllabus for Level 2 Maths-Science
REET 2024 Solved Paper
Questions, official answer key and explanations for all shifts
Official Sources
Change Log
- 17 September 2026 — English page published — mirrors the fact-checked Hindi page, independently bilingual-accuracy checked